Longman / Prentice Hall

English

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How English Works, 2/E
Anne Curzan, University of Michigan - Ann Arbor
Michael Adams, Indiana University

ISBN-10: 0205605508
ISBN-13: 9780205605507

Publisher: Longman
Copyright: 2009
Format: Paper; 608 pp
Published: 07/02/2008

Suggested retail price: $85.40
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This accessible introduction to the structure of English, general theories in linguistics, and important issues in sociolinguistics, is the first text written specifically for English and Education majors. 

 

This engaging introductory language/linguistics textbook provides more extensive coverage of issues of particular interest to English majors and future English instructors. It invites all students to connect academic linguistics to the everyday use of the English language around them. The book’s approach taps students’ natural curiosity about the English language. Through exercises and discussion questions about ongoing changes in English, How English Works asks students to become active participants in the construction of linguistic knowledge.

  • Focuses on issues especially important to English majors, such as American dialects, descriptive and prescriptive approaches to English grammar, the history of English, English spelling, stylistics, language attitudes, and language education.
  • Current examples and exercises tie the linguistic material to students’ everyday experiences with the English language. Each chapter opens with a scenario that highlights key issues covered in the chapter.
  • Featuring a building block approach, the text begins with an introduction to the foundations of systematic language study and the relationship of language and authority in chapters 1 and 2, and then progresses “up” through the levels of language structure, from phonology through syntax and semantics to discourse and sociolinguistics.
  • Focuses on the social and political issues surrounding the English language.
  • Attention to the history of English throughout the text culminates in two final chapters focused on the past and future of English.
  • Includes a wealth of useful pedagogical material, clarifying or detailing text topics and prompting student participation: Discussion, Scholar Profile, and Linguistic Inquiry boxes; in-chapter exercises; end-of-chapter suggested readings; and a glossary of linguistic terminology.

  • New, updated examples have been included throughout the text, from new words to current debates about language (e.g., censorship of taboo words in the media, language evolution, grammar questions on the SAT).
  • New extended descriptions of two additional American dialects in Chapter 12: California English and Chicano English.
  • More efficient and contrastive treatment of word classes in Chapter 5, which results in a resource that will prove useful to students/future teachers throughout their careers.
  • A clearer explanation of the relationship of simple and complex sentences in Chapter 6, to equip students to understand the wide array of sentences they encounter.
  • Fuller integration of syntax, semantics, and discourse in Chapters 6, 7, and 8 makes for a richer explanation of linguistic meaning.
  • New and revised supplemental boxes, including Questions to Discuss and Language Change, Acquisition, and Variation at Work, focus student attention on interesting language problems and help students engage actively with the English language all around them.
  • The inclusion of new material on current language pundits (Chapter 2), discourse markers (Chapter 8), verbal slips (Chapter 10), and language learning in isolation (Chapter 10).
  • More accessible examples of code-switching in Chapter 11, as well as more detailed explanations of pidgins and creoles.
  • Updated statistics on the effects of the Internet on English, as well as more detailed examples of World Englishes.
  • New Scholar to Know boxes on Robin Tolmach Lakoff and Geneva Smitherman.

     

    • Detailed Contents

    Inside Front Cover       Consonant Phonemes of English, Vowel Phonemes  of English, Phonetic Alphabet for American English

    Inside Back Cover        Brief Timeline for the History of the English Language

    List of Symbols, Linguistic  Conventions, and Common  Abbreviations xx

    Preface to Instructors xxiii

    Letter to Students xxviii

     

    Chapter 1    A Language like English  1

    The Story of Aks  2

    Language, Language Everywhere  4

    The Power of Language  4

    Name Calling  5

    Judging by Ear  5

    A Question to Discuss: What Makes Us Hear an Accent?  6

    The System of Language  7

    Arbitrariness and Systematicity  8

    A Scholar to Know:Ferdinand de Saussure (1857—1913)   9

    Creativity  10

    Grammar  10

    Linguistics  11

    Human Language versus Animal Communication  12

    Birds and Bees  13

    Chimps and Bonobos  14

    Distinctive Characteristics of Human Language  18

    The Process of Language Change  19

    Language Genealogies  20

    A Question to Discuss: Do Languages Have Families?  22

    Mechanics of Language Change  23

    Progress or Decay?   23

    Attitudes about Language Change  24

    Special Focus: Evolution of Human Language  25

    Summary  28

    Suggested Reading  29

    Exercises  29

     

    Chapter 2 Language and Authority  33

    Who Is in Control?   34

    Language Academies  34

    Language Mavens  35

    Defining Standard English  36

    Descriptive versus Prescriptive Grammar Rules  38

    Case Study One: Double Negatives  39

    Case Study Two: Ain’t  40

    Case Study Three: Who and Whom  40

    The Status of Prescriptive Rules  41

    Spoken versus Written Language  42

    A Question to Discuss: Which Is More Permanent, the Written or Spoken Word?  43

    Language and Society: Are We Losing Our Memories?  45

    Dictionaries of English  45

    The Earliest Dictionaries of English  46

    The Beginnings of Modern Lexicography  46

    Historical Lexicography  47

    American Lexicography  48

    A Question to Discuss: Should Dictionaries Ever Prescribe?  50

    English Grammar, Usage, and Style  51

    The Earliest Usage Books  51

    Prescriptive versus Descriptive Tendencies in Grammars of English  52

    Modern Approaches to English Usage  53

    Special Focus: Corpus Linguistics  55

    Origins of Corpus Linguistics  55

    Corpus Linguistics in the Twenty-first Century  57

    Summary  59

    Suggested Reading  60

    Exercises  61

     

    Chapter 3  64

    Phonetics and Phonology  65

    The Anatomy of Speech  67

    The International Phonetic Alphabet  69

    English Consonants  70

    Stops  71

    Fricatives  72

    Language Change at Work: Is /h/ Disappearing from English?  73

    Affricates  73

    A Question to Discuss: Does English Have Initial /Z/?  73

    Language Change at Work: Who Drops Their g’s?  74

    Nasals  74

    Liquids and Glides  74

    Syllabic Consonants 74

    English Vowels  75

    Front Vowels  77

    Back Vowels  77

    Central Vowels  77

    Language Change at Work: The cot/caught and pin/pen Mergers  78

    Diphthongs  79

    Natural Classes  79

    Phonemes and Allophones  80

    Sample Allophones  81

    Minimal Pairs  82

    Phonological Rules  83

    Assimilation  83

    Deletion  83

    Insertion  84

    Metathesis  84

    Language Change at Work: Is larynx Undergoing Metathesis?  85

    Syllables and Phonotactic Constraints  85

    Perception of Sound  86

    Special Focus: History of English Spelling  89

    Should English Spelling Be Reformed?   91

    Summary  92

    Suggested Reading  92

    Exercises  93

     

    Chapter 4 English Morphology  101

    Morphology  102

    Open and Closed Classes of Morphemes  103</H1>

    A Question to Discuss: Exceptions to the Closedness of Closed Classes?  106=

    Bound and Free Morphemes  107

    Language Change at Work: Bound Morphemes Becoming Free  108

    Inflectional and Derivational Bound Morphemes  108

    Inflectional Morphemes  108

    Derivational Morphemes  109

    Language Change at Work: The Origins of Inflectional  Morphemes  110

    Affixes and Combining Forms  110

    Morphology Trees  111

    A Question to Discuss: What about Complex Words That Seem to Have Only  One Morpheme?  113

    Ways of Forming English Words  113

    Combining  113

    Shortening  115

    A Question to Discuss: Is It Clipping or Backformation?  116

    Blending  116

    Language Change at Work: Alice in Wonderland and the Portmanteau  116

    Shifting  117

    Language Change at Work: Success Rates for New Words  117

    Re-analysis, Eggcorns, and folk Etymology

    Reduplication

    Frequency of Different Word-Formation Processes  118

    Borrowing and the Multicultural Vocabulary of English  119

    A Question to Discuss: What’s Wrong with amorality? 121

    Special Focus: Slang and Creativity  122

    Summary  124

    Suggested Reading  124

    Exercises  124

     

     Chapter 5 English Syntax: The Grammar of Words  129

    Syntax and Lexical Categories  130

    Open-Class Lexical Categories  132

    Nouns  132

    Adjectives  134

    Language Change at Work: Is It fish or fishes, oxen or oxes 135

    A Question to Discuss: Am I Good or Well?  136

    Verbs  137

    A Question to Discuss: Did I Lie Down or Lay Down?  143

    Adverbs  145

    A Question to Discuss: If I Do Badly, Why Don’t I Run Fastly?  146

    Closed-Class Lexical Categories  146

    Prepositions  147

    A Question to Discuss: What Is the up in call up? 148

    Conjunctions  148

    Pronouns  149

    Complementizers  150

    Language Change at Work: Himself, Hisself, Hisownself  151

    Determiners  151

    Auxiliary Verbs  152

    Challenges to Categorization  154

    The Suffix -ing  154

    Noun Modifiers  155

    A Question to Discuss:  What Can Phonology Reveal about Modifying -ing Forms?  155

    Yes and No  156

    Special Focus: Descriptive Syntax and Prescriptive Rules  156

    Hopefully  157

    Split Infinitive  157

    Sentence-Final Prepositions  158

    Its/It’s  158

    Singular Generic “They"  159

    Summary  160

    Suggested Reading  160

    Exercises  161

     

     Chapter 6   English Syntax: Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences  166

    Generative Grammar  167

    Universal Grammar  168

    A Scholar to Know: Noam Chomsky (1928— )  169

    Constituents and Hierarchies  170

    Constituent Hierarchies  171

    Clauses and Sentences  172

    Constituency Tests  173

    Phrase Structure Rules  174

    Form and Function clause types

    Basic Phrase Structure Trees  176

    Complex Phrase Structure Trees  181

    Subordinate Adverbial Clauses  181

    Relative Clauses  182

    Language Change at Work: Which Is It, Which or That?184

    Complementizer Clauses  185

    Reduced Subordinate Clauses  186

    Infinitive Phrases  186

    Gerund and Participial Phrases  187

    Tense and Auxiliaries  188

    A Question to Discuss: What Is the It in “It Is Raining”?  189

    Transformations  190

    Wh-Questions  190

    Negation  191

    Yes-No Questions  191

    Tag Questions  192

    Passive Constructions  192

    A Question to Discuss: How Did This Passive Sentence Get Constructed?   193

    Relative Pronoun Deletion  193

    Phrasal Verb Particle Movement  193

    Does Generative Grammar Succeed?  194

    Special Focus: Syntax and Prescriptive Grammar  196

    Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences  197

    Colons, Semicolons, and Comma Splices  197

    Dangling Participles  198

    Summary  200

    Suggested Reading  200

    Exercises  201

     

    Chapter 7 Semantics  207

    Semantics  208

    The Limits of Reference  209

    The Role of Cognition  210

    The Role of Linguistic Context  210

    A Question to Discuss: How Do Function Words Mean?  211

    The Role of Physical and Cultural Context  211

    Language Change at Work: The Formation of Idioms  212

    A Brief History of Theories of Reference  212

    Deixis  213

    Plato and Forms  213

    Repairing Plato  214

    From Reference to Discourse  215

    From Reference to Translation  215

    Componential Analysis

    Lexical Fields  216

    Hyponym to Homonym (and Other Nyms)  218

    Hyponymy  218

    Meronymy  219

    Synonymy  219

    Antonymy  220

    A Question to Discuss: Does the Thesaurus Have a Bad Name?  221

    Homonymy  221

    Organization of the Mental Lexicon

    Prototype Semantics  224

    Lexical Prototype Semantics  225

    Analogical Mapping  225

    Conceptual Metaphor  226

    The Intersection of Semantics and Syntax  232

    Projection Rules  232

    Thematic Roles  232

    How Sentences Mean  233

    Sentences and Context

    SentenHo

    Processes of Semantic Change  226

    Generalization and Specialization  227

    Metaphorical Extension  229

    Euphemism and Dysphemism  230

    Pejoration and Amelioration  231

    Linguistic Relativity  234

    Special Focus: Politically Correct Language  236

    Summary  238

    Suggested Reading  239

    Exercises  239

     

    Chapter 8 Spoken Discourse  242

    Discourse Analysis  243

    Speech Act Theory: Accomplishing Things with Words  244

    Scholars to Know: J. L. Austin (1911—1960) and John Searle (1932— )  245

    Components of Speech Acts  245

    Direct and Indirect Speech Acts  246

    Performative Speech Acts  248

    Evaluating Speech Act Theory

    The Cooperative Principle: Successfully Exchanging Information  249

    Conversational Maxims  250

    Conversational Implicature  251

    A Question to Discuss: Entailment and Implicature  251

    Relevance  253

    Politeness and Face: Negotiating Relationships in Speaking  255

    Positive and Negative Politeness and Face  255

    Face-Threatening Acts  256

    A Question: A Question to Discuss: How Do Compliments Work?

    A Scholar to Know: Robin Tolmach Lakoff (1942-)

    Discourse Markers: Signaling Discourse Organization  and Authority  258

    Function of Discourse Markers  258

    Language Change at Work: from Beowulf to Dude

    Types of Discourse Markers  259

    Language Change at Work: Like, I Was Like, What Is Going On With the Word Like?  260

    Conversation Analysis: Taking Turns and the Conversational  Floor  261

    Structure of Conversation  262

    Turn-Taking  263

    Turn-Taking Violations  264

    Maintenance and Repair  265

    Style Shifting: Negotiating Social Meaning  266

    Indexical Meaning  266

    Style and Creativity  266

    Special Focus: Do Men and Women Speak Differently?  269

    Early Language and Gender Research  270

    Different Models for Gender Difference  271

    Queer Sociolinguistics  272

    Language and Identity  273

    Summary  273

    Suggested Reading  274

    Exercises  274

     

    Chapter 9  Stylistics  281

    Stylistics  285

    Systematicity and Choice  285

    The World of Texts: Genres and Registers  286

    Variation among Text Types  289

    Which Comes First?  290

    Textual Unity: Cohesion  290

    Elements of Cohesion  292

    Cohesion at Work

    Telling Stories: The Structure of Narratives  296

    The Components of a Narrative  296

    Investigating Speakers and Perspective  299

    Varieties of Perspective  299

    Speech: Direct and Indirect  300

    Investigating Actions  301

    Role of Action in Narrative  301

    Action in Narrative  303

    Attitudes in Action  304

    Investigating Word Choice  305

    Diction  305

    Metaphor  306

    Language Variation at Work: Literary Forensics  307

    Modality

    Rhythm and Rhyme in Poetry  307

    Poeticity and Its Axes  308

    A Scholar to Know: Roman Jakobson (1896—1982)   309

    Meter, Rhythm, and Scansion  310

    Prosody and Verse Structure  310

    Sound, Meaning, and Poetic Technique  311

    A Question to Discuss: What Makes the Tongue Twist?  312

    Language Change at Work: Hip Hop Rhymes  313

    Special Focus: What Makes “Good Writing”?  314

    Summary  315

    Suggested Reading  316

    Exercises  316

     

    Chapter 10 Language Acquisition  320

    Theories about Children’s Language Acquisition  321

    Imitation versus Instinct  322

    Noam Chomsky and Universal Grammar  323

    Debates about Language “Hard Wiring”  323

    Language and the Brain  324

    Children Learning Sounds  326

    Language Acquisition Tests  327

    Acquisition of Phonemic Differences  328

    Children Learning Words  329

    Babbling and First Words  329

    Language Acquisition at Work: Imitating Faces  330

    Language Acquisition at Work: Deaf Children Learning ASL  332

    Acquisition of Words and Word Meaning  334

    Language and Society: What Causes “The Terrible Twos”?  335

    A Question to Discuss: Why Do We Talk with Our Hands?

    Children Learning Grammar  335

    Patterns of Children’s Errors  335

    Acquisition of Complex Grammatical Constructions  337

    The Role of Parents in Language Acquisition  338

    Features of Parentese  339

    Role of Parentese  340

    Language Acquisition in Special Circumstances  340

    Pidgins and Creoles  341

    Nicaraguan Sign Language  342

    Critical Age Hypothesis  343

    Critical Periods  343

    A Case Study: Genie  344

    Acquisition of Languages Later in Life  345

    When Things Go Wrong  345

    Broca’s Aphasia  346

    Wernicke’s Aphasia  347

    Dyslexia  348

    Language Variation at Work: Verbal Slips

    Special Focus: Children and Bilingualism  350

    Children Learning Two Languages  350

    Bilingual Education Programs  350

    Summary  352

    Suggested Reading  352

    Exercises  353

     

    Chapter 11 Language Variation  356

    Dialect  357

    Dialects versus Languages  358

    A Question to Discuss: Is American English a Dialect or a Language?  359

    Standard and Nonstandard Dialects  359

    Dialectology  360

    Language Change at Work: Pop versus Soda  363

    Variationist Sociolinguistics  364

    William Labov’s Research  365

    A Scholar to Know: William Labov (1927— )  366

    Sociolinguistics versus Generative Grammar  366

    Speech Communities and Communities of Practice  367

    Variationist Sociolinguistic Methodologies  367

    Sampling  368

    Soliciting Language  369

    Analyzing Results  369

    Ethical Issues  371

    A Question to Discuss: Should We Preserve Dialects?  373

    Major Factors in Language Variation within Speech Communities  373

    Age  373

    Gender  374

    Class  375

    Race and Ethnicity  378

    Social Networks  378

    Effects of Language Contact  380

    Dialect Contact  380

    Language Contact  380

    Pidgins and Creoles  381

    Speaker Attitudes and Language Variation  383

    A Question to Discuss: What Does “Linguistic Equality” Mean?  385

    Special Focus: Code-switching  386

    Summary  388

    Suggested Reading  389

    Exercises  389

     

    Chapter 12 American Dialects  392

    The Politics of American Dialects  393

    Speakers Who Control Multiple Dialects  394

    Judgments and Humor about Dialects  394

    Dialect Diversity and National Unity  395

    Language Change at Work: The Inconsistency of Language Attitudes  396

    Regional Variation  397

    A Sample Walk  397

    Language Change at Work: Why Does Unless Mean in case’in Pennsylvania?  399

    Defining Regions  400

    The Emergence of Regional Dialects  401

    Retention  402

    Naturally Occurring Internal Language Change  402

    Language Change at Work: Regional Food Terms  403

    Language Contact  403

    Language Change at Work: A Dragonfly by Any Other Name  404

    Coining  405

    Social Factors  405

    The History of Regional Dialects in the United States  406

    The Beginnings of American English  406

    The Northern Dialect Region  407

    The Southern Dialect Region  408

    The Midland Dialect Region  409

    The Western Dialect Region  409

    Dialects within Dialect Regions  410

    Two Case Studies of Regional Variation  412

    Appalachian English

    Phonological Features  412

    Morphological and Syntactic Features  414

    Lexical Features  416

    Language Change at Work: Jack, Will, and Jenny in the Swamp  416

    California English

    Phonological Features

    Lexical Features

    Syntax and Discourse Features

    Social Variation  417

    Slang and Jargon versus Dialects  417

    Social Dialects  418

    Two Case Studies of Social Variation  418

                                        Chicano English

                                        Phonological Features

                                        Lexical Features

                                        African American English

    Historical Origins  419

    Phonological Features  420

    Morphological and Syntactic Features  420

    Lexical Features  421

    Special Focus: The Ebonics Controversy  422

    Summary  431

    Suggested Reading  431

    Exercises  432

     

    Chapter 13 History of English: Old to Early Modern English  435

    Old English (449—1066): History of Its Speakers  436

    When Did English Begin?  436

    Which Germanic Dialect Is “Old English”?  437

    Language Change at Work: How English Was Written Down  439

    Where Do the Names English and EnglandOriginate?  440

    Old English Lexicon  440

    Latin Borrowing  441

    Old Norse Borrowing  443

    Native English Word Formation  443

    Old English Grammar  444

    The Origins of Modern English Noun Inflections  444

    The Gender of Things  445

    The Familiarity of Personal Pronouns  445

    The Many Faces of Modifiers  446

    The Origins of Some Modern English Irregular Verbs  447

    Variation in Word Order  448

    Middle English (1066—1476): History of Its Speakers  449

    The Norman Conquest  449

    A Scholar to Know: J. R. R. Tolkien the Philologist  450

    The Renewal of English  450

    The Emergence of a Standard  451

    Middle English Dialects  452

    The Middle English Lexicon  454

    French Borrowing  454

    Latin Borrowing  455

    Other Borrowing  455

    Word Formation Processes  456

    Middle English Grammar  456

    The Loss of Inflections and Its Effects  457

    The Inflections That Survive  457

    Early Modern English (1476—1776): History of Its Speakers  458

    The Printing Press  458

    Attitudes about English  459

    The Study of English  461

    A Question to Discuss: How Do We Preserve the Evidence

    Early Modern English Lexicon  463

    Greek and Latin Borrowing  464

    Romance Borrowing  464

    Semantic Change in the Native Lexicon  464

    Affixation  465

    Early Modern English Grammar  466

    Older Grammatical Retentions  466

    Developments in Morphosyntax  466

    Language Change at Work: The Invention of pea  467

    The Fate of Final-e  467

    Language Change at Work: The Great Vowel Shift  468

    Looking Ahead  468

    Suggested Reading  469

    Exercises  470

     

    Chapter 14 History of English: Modern and Future  English  477

    Modern English (1776—Present): Social Forces at Work  478

    Prescription and the Standard Variety  478

    The Media  479

    Imperialism  480

    Globalization  481

    Language Change at Work: The Debated Origins of O.K.  482

    Modern English: Language Change in Progress  483

    Word Formation  483

    Lexical Borrowing  484

    Phonological Changes  485

    Grammatical Changes  486

    A Question to Discuss: “Hey, You Guys, Is This Grammaticalization?”  487

    The Status of English in the United States  487

    Language Variation at Work: The Myth of the “German Vote” in 1776  489

    A Question to Discuss: Official State Languages  491

    The Status of English around the World  492

    The Meaning of a “Global Language”  493

    English as a Global Language  494

    World Englishes  496

    The Future of English as a Global Language  498

    What Happens after Modern English?  499

    English and the Internet  500

    Language Change at Work: Retronymy and Reduplication

    Suggested Readings  505

    Exercises  506

    Glossary  509

    Bibliography  533

    Credits  545

    Index  547

     

     

      This accessible introduction to the structure of English, general theories in linguistics, and important issues in sociolinguistics, is the first text written specifically for English and Education majors. 

       

      This engaging introductory language/linguistics textbook provides more extensive coverage of issues of particular interest to English majors and future English instructors. It invites all students to connect academic linguistics to the everyday use of the English language around them. The book’s approach taps students’ natural curiosity about the English language. Through exercises and discussion questions about ongoing changes in English, How English Works asks students to become active participants in the construction of linguistic knowledge.

    • 0321121880How English Works: A Linguistic Introduction
      Curzan & Adams
      © 2006 | Longman | Paper; 592 pages | Instock
      ISBN-10: 0321121880 | ISBN-13: 9780321121882
      Brief Description

     

    A major introductory language/linguistics textbook written specifically for English and Education majors, How English Works is an engaging introduction to the structure of English, general theories in linguistics, and important issues in sociolinguistics. 

     

    This accessible text provides more extensive coverage of issues of particular interest to English and Education majors.  Tapping into our natural curiosity about language, it invites all students to connect academic linguistics to everyday use of the English language and to become active participants in the construction of linguistic knowledge.

     

    The second edition provides updated examples of current language change, including new slang, as well as new research findings on American dialects, language acquisition, language evolution, eggcorns, English and the Internet, and much more.

     

    FEATURES

    o        Focuses on issues especially important to English and Education majors, such as American dialects, descriptive and prescriptive approaches to English grammar, the social and political issues surrounding the English language, English spelling, stylistics, language attitudes, and language education. 

     

    o        Provides current examples that tie the linguistic material to students’ everyday experiences with the English language.  Each chapter opens with a scenario that highlights key issues covered in the chapter. 

     

    o        Includes engaging exercises that allow students to be active investigators of the English language, connect linguistic study to literary examples, and ask students to apply material to teaching situations.

     

    o        Features a building block approach, beginning with an introduction to the foundations of systematic language study and the relationship of language and authority and then progressing up through the levels of language structure, from phonology through syntax and semantics to discourse and sociolinguistics. In the second edition, each chapter even more clearly shows how these levels are interrelated.

     

    o        Provides a history of English throughout the text, which culminates in two final chapters focused on the past and future of English. 

     

    o        Includes a wealth of useful pedagogical material, clarifying or detailing text topics and prompting student participation: Questions to Discuss, Scholar Profile, and Language Change and Language Variation at Work boxes; end-of-chapter exercises; suggested readings; and a glossary of linguistic terminology. 

     

     

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