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Preface xiii

Chapter 1

HI S T O R I C A L A N D I N T E R N A T I O N A L P E R S P E C T I V E S 1

Societal Bilingualism 1

The Ancient World 1

The Modern World 2

Multilingualism in the United States 3

Education in More than One Language: An International Perspective 4

China 4

Canada 4

Sweden 5

The History of Dual Language Instruction in the United States 5

The Nineteenth Century 5

The Twentieth Century 8

The Twenty-First Century 9

Summary 9

Questions to Think About and Discuss 10

Activities 10

Suggestions for Further Reading 10

Chapter 2

DU A L L A N G U A G E P R O G R A M M O D E L S 1 3

What Is a Program Model? 13

Transitional Bilingual Programs 14

Which Students Do Transitional Programs Serve? 14

What Is the Goal of a Transitional Program? 14

Transitional Programs: A Lot Better than Nothing 15

Language Maintenance Programs 15

Enrichment Programs 16

Immersion Programs 16

The Results of Immersion: The Canadian Experience 17

Immersion Programs in the United States 17

English Immersion 19

Models and Realities: What Does Bilingual Education

Look Like in Practice? 19

Dual Language Instruction in Private Schools 22

Bilingual Teachers 23

Summary 24

Questions to Think About and Discuss 24

Activities 24

Suggestions for Further Reading 25

Chapter 3

AS P E C T S O F L A N G U A G E 2 7

The Study of Language 27

What Is Language? 28

Subsystems of Language 29

The Phonological System 29

The Morphological System 29

Syntax 29

Semantics 30

Pragmatics 31

Implications for Teachers 31

Other Aspects of Communication 33

Language Attitudes 33

Are Some Languages Better than Others? 33

Are Some Languages More Expressive than Others? 34

Language Varieties 36

Standard 36

Dialect 37

Pidgins and Creoles 37

Register 38

But Is It Slang? 38

More Than One Language 38

What Is Bilingualism? 39

Code-Switching 40

Bilingualism: A Handicap or a Talent? 41

The Ebonics Debate 41

Summary 43

Questions to Think About and Discuss 43

Activities 45

Suggestions for Further Reading 46

Chapter 4

LA N G U A G E D E V E L O P M E N T 4 7

First Language Development: Memorizing or Hypothesizing? 47

Rule Finding 48

First Language Development and Comprehensible Input 49

Child-Directed Speech 49

The Social and Cultural Contexts of Language Acquisition 50

Input Modification 50

Stages of First Language Development 51

Order of Acquisition 52

Children as Sociolinguists 53

Second Language Acquisition 54

The Effect of Age 55

The Effect of Personality 56

The Social Factors 56

Integrative Models of Second Language Acquisition 57

The Acquisition—Learning Distinction 57

Language Learners and Language Speakers Interact 59

Summary 60

Questions to Think About and Discuss 61

Activities 61

Suggestions for Further Reading 61

Chapter 5

ST U D E N T A S S E S S M E N T 6 3

Testing Second Language Learners: General Issues 63

Reliability 63

Validity 64

Content Bias 64

Can You Eliminate Content Bias with Translation? 64

Construct Bias 65

Procedure 65

Norming 65

Language Proficiency 66

What Is Language Proficiency? 66

Models of Language Proficiency 66

Academic Language Proficiency 66

How Is Language Proficiency Assessed? 67

Standardized Achievement Testing 70

Diagnostic Testing for Placement in Special Programs 72

Summary 73

Questions to Think About and Discuss 73

Activities 73

Suggestions for Further Reading 74

Chapter 6

P R I M A R Y L A N G U A G E I N S T R U C T I O N F O R L I M I T E D

E N G L I S H P R O F I C I E N T S T U D E N T S 7 7

A Rationale for Primary Language Instruction 78

Transfer of Concepts and Skills 78

Primary Language Development and Second Language Acquisition 80

Students Need to Develop CALP 80

Effects of Bilingualism on Achievement 81

Primary Language Instruction and Self-Concept 81

Overall, What Does the Research Indicate? 82

If Primary Language Instruction, Then How? 83

Separation of Languages 84

Concurrent Translation 84

Preview-Review 85

Cooperative Learning 85

Summary 86

Questions to Think About and Discuss 87

Activities 87

Suggestions for Further Reading 87

•C H A P T E R 7

 

SE C O N D L A N G U A G E I N S T R U C T I O N 8 9

A Note about Terminology 89

Early Viewpoints on Second Language Instruction 90

Grammar-Translation 90

The Search for Alternative Approaches 90

Modern Approaches to Second Language Instruction 91

The Audiolingual Approach 91

Other Recent Approaches 92

Integrating Language and Content: Specially Designed

Academic Instruction in English 95

Planning 95

Classroom Management 96

Lesson Delivery 96

Assessment 97

Literacy and Biliteracy 99

What Is Literacy? 99

Biliteracy 100

How Can Teachers Support Biliteracy? 100

Literacy and the Second Language Learner 102

How Can Schools Promote Biliteracy? 102

Summary 103

Questions to Think About and Discuss 104

Activities 104

Suggestions for Further Reading 105

C H A P T E R 8

ASPECTS OF CULTURE 1 0 9

Culture and Population 109

The Impact of Immigration 109

Other Demographic Factors 110

What Is Culture? 111

Culture Is Dynamic 112

Culture Is Creative 112

Culture Is Continuous 112

Culture Is Learned 113

Culture Is Shared 113

Culture Is a Struggle for Survival 113

Culture and Language 114

How Is Culture Manifested? 115

Clothing and Decoration 115

Housing 115

Time Orientation 116

Spatial Orientation 116

Values 116

Bilingual Education and Multicultural Education 117

What Is Multicultural Education? 117

What Is the Connection Between Bilingual Education

and Multicultural Education? 120

Summary 121

Questions to Think About and Discuss 121

Activities 121

Suggestions for Further Reading 122

C H A P T E R 9

C U L T U R E A N D S C H O O L I N G 1 2 5

Culture and Academic Success 125

Genetic Inferiority 125

Cultural Deficit 126

Cultural Mismatch 127

Contextual Interaction 130

John Ogbu’s Typology 131

Status, Power, and School Success 132

Summary 134

Questions to Think About and Discuss 134

Activities 135

Suggestions for Further Reading 135

C H A P T E R 10

LE G A L F O U N D A T I O N S O F D U A L

L A N G U A G E I N S T R U C T I O N 1 3 7

The Historical Context for Dual Language Instruction:

World War II and Beyond 138

World War II and Foreign Language Instruction 138

World War II and Civil Rights 139

Brown v. the Board of Education (1954) 139

The Civil Rights Movement and Dual Language Instruction 140

Who Governs Education? 140

Federal Involvement in Education 141

The Bilingual Education Act (Title VII) 141

Discretionary Funding 142

Title VII and Policy 142

Lau v. Nichols (1974) 143

Interpretation of Lau 143

Effects of Lau 144

Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 145

No Child Left Behind 145

NCLB Funding 146

NCLB Pros and Cons 148

State Laws Regarding Bilingual Education 149

Summary 149

Questions to Think About and Discuss 150

Activities 150

Suggestions for Further Reading 150

C H A P T E R 11

L A N G U A G E P O L I C Y A N D P L A N N I N G 1 5 1

Language Support 151

Language Suppression 152

Language Suppression and the Media 153

Endangered Languages 153

Does Language Loss Matter? 154

Language Policy and Schooling 154

Summary 157

Questions to Think About and Discuss 157

Activities 157

Suggestions for Further Reading 158

C H A P T E R 12

NA T I O N A L U N I T Y A N D D I V E R S I T Y : T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S I N T H E T W E N T Y- F I R S T C E N T U R Y 1 5 9

 

Immigration 159

A Historical Perspective 160

Assimilation versus Pluralism 161

Unity, Diversity, and Language 162

Language Parochialism 163

Language Elitism 165

Language Restrictionism 166

Implications for Schooling 170

Summary 171

Questions to Think About and Discuss 172

Activities 172

Suggestions for Further Reading 172

 

A P P E N D I X

O N L I N E R E S O U R C E S 1 7 5

Bibliography 177

Index 199

 

 

 

Judith Lessow-Hurley is a professor in the Elementary Education

Department at San José State University. Her areas of

expertise are bilingual and multicultural education. She works

primarily with preservice teachers, most of whom teach significant

numbers of second language learners. She is the author

of “Meeting the Needs of Second Language Learners” (ASCD,

2002).

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